Difference between revisions of "Borassus aethiopum"
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{{Palmbox | {{Palmbox | ||
| − | |image= | + | |image=borassus-aethiopum-maromandia-1.jpg |
| − | |image_caption= | + | |image_caption=Maromandia, Madagascar. Photo by Dr. Mijoro Rakotoarinivo/Kew. |
| − | |genus=Borassus ( | + | |genus=Borassus (BOR-rahs-suhs) |
| − | |species=aethiopum | + | |species=aethiopum (eh-tee-OH-puhm) |
|subspecies= | |subspecies= | ||
|variety= | |variety= | ||
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|common_names=Dimaka (Sakalava, Madagascar), Kuhe (Ashanti, Ghana), Muhama (Kibuyu, Congo-Kinshasa), Mvumo (Kiswahili, Kenya & Tanzania). A list of West African vernacular names for B. aethiopum is provided by Burkill (1997). European names include African fan-palm, borassus-palm, rhun-palm, rônier (French) and palma-do-vinha (Portuguese). (R.P. Bayton. 2007). African fan palm, African palmyra palm, deleb palm, ron palm, toddy palm, black rhun palm, ronier palm (from the French). | |common_names=Dimaka (Sakalava, Madagascar), Kuhe (Ashanti, Ghana), Muhama (Kibuyu, Congo-Kinshasa), Mvumo (Kiswahili, Kenya & Tanzania). A list of West African vernacular names for B. aethiopum is provided by Burkill (1997). European names include African fan-palm, borassus-palm, rhun-palm, rônier (French) and palma-do-vinha (Portuguese). (R.P. Bayton. 2007). African fan palm, African palmyra palm, deleb palm, ron palm, toddy palm, black rhun palm, ronier palm (from the French). | ||
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==Habitat and Distribution== | ==Habitat and Distribution== | ||
| − | Benin, Burkina, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Ethiopia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Northern Provinces, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. | + | ''Borassus aethiopum'' is found in Benin, Burkina, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Ethiopia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Northern Provinces, Senegal, Sudan, [[image:91884_orig.jpg|thumb|left|500px|Rusitu Valley Habitat: At edge of cultivated field. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten]]Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Found across sub-Saharan Africa as far south as northern South Africa. Absent from parts of southwest and central Africa, and the Horn of Africa. Present on a number of offshore islands including São Tomé and Bioko in the Gulf of Guinea, three of the Cape Verde Islands, and Pemba, Zanzibar and Mayotte in the Mozambique Channel. Present in the Sambirano region of northwest Madagascar, including the islands of Nosy Bé and Nosy Mitsiou, though it may be introduced there. (R.P. Bayton. 2007/Palmweb. |
| − | Found across sub-Saharan Africa as far south as northern South Africa. Absent from parts of southwest and central Africa, and the Horn of Africa. Present on a number of offshore islands including São Tomé and Bioko in the Gulf of Guinea, three of the Cape Verde Islands, and Pemba, Zanzibar and Mayotte in the Mozambique Channel. Present in the Sambirano region of northwest Madagascar, including the islands of Nosy Bé and Nosy Mitsiou, though it may be introduced there. (R.P. Bayton. 2007 | + | |
| − | Riverine forest and savanna in low-lying areas, particularly on sandy or alluvial soils. Borassus aethiopum can form dense almost monospecific forest stands or is a component of more diverse riverine forest. However, it is as the main component of palm savannas for which it is best known. Borassus aethiopum is well adapted to fire and herbivory and prospers in areas with frequent burning and browsing. After the pyrenes are dispersed, the embryo is buried underground by the extending cotyledonary petiole (Barot & Gignoux 1999). The meristem is thus protected in the early years of life during a period known as the establishment phase. After several years surviving as a small cluster of leaves, the palm finally generates a stem and this grows rapidly. At this stage, the meristem is vulnerable to fire and herbivory, but is protected to some extent by the skirt of dead leaves that clothes the stem. The dead leaf blades are highly-flammable, but the woody petioles are more persistent and this may allow brush fires to pass quickly; the leaf blade is quickly consumed, but the petiole burns slowly, keeping the fire away from the meristem. As a result, the stem is covered with petioles, which may also serve as a deterrent to large herbivores as the petioles are armed with spines. The accumulated leaf sheathes and petioles are shed cleanly at maturity (Barot & Gignoux 1999). At this point, the meristem is protected from fire and herbivory by virtue of its height above the ground. (R.P. Bayton. 2007). | + | Riverine forest and savanna in low-lying areas, particularly on sandy or alluvial soils. Borassus aethiopum can form dense almost monospecific forest stands or is a component of more diverse riverine forest. However, it is as the main component of palm savannas for which it is best known. Borassus aethiopum is well adapted to fire and herbivory and prospers in areas with frequent burning and browsing. After the pyrenes are dispersed, the embryo is buried underground by the extending cotyledonary petiole (Barot & Gignoux 1999). The meristem is thus protected in the early years of life during a period known as the establishment phase. After several years surviving as a small cluster of leaves, the palm finally generates a stem and this grows rapidly. At this stage, the meristem is vulnerable to fire and herbivory, but is protected to some extent by the skirt of dead leaves that clothes the stem. The dead leaf blades are highly-flammable, but the woody petioles are more persistent and this may allow brush fires to pass quickly; the leaf blade is quickly consumed, but the petiole burns slowly, keeping the fire away from the meristem. As a result, the stem is covered with petioles, which may also serve as a deterrent to large herbivores as the petioles are armed with spines. The accumulated leaf sheathes and petioles are shed cleanly at maturity (Barot & Gignoux 1999). At this point, the meristem is protected from fire and herbivory by virtue of its height above the ground. (R.P. Bayton. 2007)/Palmweb. |
==Description== | ==Description== | ||
| − | They grow swelling, solitary trunks to 25 metres (82 ft.) high, and 1 metre (3 ft. 3 in.) in diameter at the base. The green leaves — 3 to 4 metres (10-12 ft.) wide — are carried on petioles — 2 metres (6 ft. 7 in.) long — which are armed with spines. The crownshaft is spherical to 7 metres (23 ft.) wide, the leaves are round with stiff leaflets, segmented a third or half-way to the petiole. In male plants the flower is small and inconspicuous; females grow larger, 2 centimetres (0.79 in.) flowers which produce yellow to brown fruit resembling the coconut containing up to 3 seeds. | + | They grow swelling, solitary trunks to 25 metres (82 ft.) high, and 1 metre (3 ft. 3 in.) in diameter at the base. The green leaves — 3 to 4 metres (10-12 ft.) wide — are carried on petioles — 2 metres (6 ft. 7 in.) long — which are armed with spines. The crownshaft is spherical to 7 metres (23 ft.) wide, the leaves are round with stiff leaflets, segmented a third or half-way to the petiole. In male plants the flower is small and inconspicuous; females grow larger, 2 centimetres (0.79 in.) flowers which produce yellow to brown fruit resembling the coconut containing up to 3 seeds. Editing by edric. |
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| + | Stem to 25m tall, almost always ventricose, to 80 cm in diameter. Leaves 18 – 27 in the crown; petiole and sheath 130 – 220 cm long; petiole 3.2 – 9 cm wide, robust, with large (0.4 – 2.8 cm long), recurved black teeth on the margins, yellow-orange in the distal portion, darkening to brown-black towards the trunk, though in immature plants, the petiole may be completely black; petiole spines extending along the margin of the first leaflet; costa 80 – 170 cm long; adaxial hastula conspicuous, to 2.9 cm high, abaxial hastula rudimentary; lamina radius to 190 cm maximum, dense indumentum on the ribs of some immature leaves; leaflets 86 – 120, 4.7 – 11 cm wide, apices acute and entire or splitting longitudinally with age, shortest leaflet 45 – 92 cm long, leaf divided to 58 – 95 cm; commissural veins 8 – 15 per cm, leaf anatomy isolateral. Staminate inflorescences branched to two orders, upper subtending branches terminating in 1 – 3 rachillae; rachillae green-brown and catkin-like, 37 – 50 cm long, 2.3 – 3.8 cm diameter, sometimes with a mamilliform apex; rachilla bracts form pits that contain a cincinnus of 8 – 14 staminate flowers. Pistillate inflorescences spicate; flower-bearing portion 36 – 160 cm long with 10 – 28 flowers arranged spirally. Staminate flowers 0.2 – 0.7 cm long, exserted individually from the pits; bracteoles 0.8 × 0.5 cm; calyx 0.4 × 0.2 cm and shallowly divided into three sepals, petal lobes 0.15 × 0.1 cm; stamens 6 with very short filaments, 0.02 × 0.04 cm, anthers 0.02 × 0.05 cm; pistillode minute. Pollen monosulcate, elliptical, 49 – 71 μm long, aperture 37 – 71 μm long, polar axis 32 – 61 μm long; tectum perforate, sparsely covered with supratectal gemmae. Pistillate flowers 3 × 3 cm, bracteoles 2 cm diam., sepals 1.5 × 2 cm and petals 1 × 1.5 cm. Fruits massive, 7 – 17 × 7 – 11 cm, ovoid, flattened at the apex, or with a depressed apex; fragrant, yellow to orange or red at maturity; produced inside persistent perianth segments; pyrenes 1 – 3, 6.4 – 10.9 cm × 5.4 – 8.0 cm × 4.2 – 5.7 cm, somewhat bilobed; some pyrenes have one or two external longitudinal furrows; internal flanges absent. (R.P. Bayton. 2007)/Palmweb. | ||
| − | + | Historically, the key question in Borassus taxonomy has been whether to recognise both the African B. aethiopum and the Asian B. flabellifer. Most recent accounts do recognise B. aethiopum (Beccari 1924; Dransfield 1986a; 1988; Tuley 1995). The molecular study of Kovoor & Hussein (1983) also noted differences between the two species, though the population sampling was extremely limited. Qualitative characters that separate the two include the stem (ventricose in B. aethiopum and not in B. flabellifer), petiole spines (large in B. aethiopum, small in B. flabellifer), and fruit colour (black for B. flabellifer and yellow-orange for B. aethiopum). Beccari (1924) separated the African and Asian Borassus species based on the degree of division of the calyx lobes of the staminate flowers. The calyx of Asian species was divided to the base, while the calyx of African species was only divided to the middle. This character appears to be nothing more than an artefact of preparation. The calyx of most staminate flowers (of either Asian or African species) is divided to the middle. However, the transparent, membranous partitions between the calyx lobes tear easily. The resultant tear is perfectly straight, giving the impression that the calyx is divided to the base. Dransfield (1986a) noted that B. aethiopum was generally “more massive” than B. flabellifer and for several characters, this does appear to be the case. The leaves have wider petioles with longer spines and more leaflets, and the staminate and pistillate rachillae are longer with more flowers. However, while B. aethiopum and B. flabellifer are at opposite ends of the size range for some characters, other Borassus species are intermediate and no truly determinate quantitative characters were identified. The Madagascar endemic B. sambiranensis is placed here in synonymy with B. aethiopum as the two are almost indistinguishable, both in the field and the herbarium. Jumelle and Perrier de la Bâthie (1913) describe in detail the differences between the two Madagascar taxa and state that B. sambiranensis is most similar to B. aethiopum. Beccari (1912 – 14, 1914, 1924) recognised B. sambiranensis, though only the pyrenes were available for him to examine. He wrote that they resemble B. aethiopum var. bagamojensis Becc. and differ only in that there is a deep hollow at the apex. The morphology of Borassus pyrenes is extremely variable and this character alone is insufficient to warrant continued recognition of B. sambiranensis. No type specimen was cited by Jumelle and Perrier de la Bâthie, though it could be Perrier 12069 (lower Sambirano valley) (Dransfield & Beentje 1995a). However, this specimen could not be located and a modern neotype, collected in the Sambirano valley, has been designated. Borassus deleb was placed in synonymy with B. aethiopum by Dransfield (1986a), as the diagnostic fruit characters of the former fit within the range of variation exhibited by the latter. Due to their large size and fleshy consistency, few whole Borassus fruits are preserved in European herbaria. New taxa were erected on the basis of differences between these fruits without taking into account the full range of natural variation. In an attempt to counter this problem, every fruit from three Kenyan specimens of B. aethiopum (159 fruits total) was measured in the field. The variation exhibited by those fruits already encompassed almost all the variation in fruit size for the whole genus. The fruit and leaf that are illustrated as part of the type of B. deleb are not significantly different from those of B. aethiopum. Based on my own field observations and examination of the type specimen, I agree with the conclusions of Dransfield (1986a) to place B. deleb in synonymy under B. aethiopum. A neotype has been designated for B. aethiopum as the holotype is missing (Hepper 1976). The holotype was collected in Ghana near Accra (Thonning & Schumacher 1829). The neotype was also collected near Accra and includes both staminate and pistillate elements. (R.P. Bayton. 2007)/Palmweb. | |
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| − | Historically, the key question in Borassus taxonomy has been whether to recognise both the African B. aethiopum and the Asian B. flabellifer. Most recent accounts do recognise B. aethiopum (Beccari 1924; Dransfield 1986a; 1988; Tuley 1995). The molecular study of Kovoor & Hussein (1983) also noted differences between the two species, though the population sampling was extremely limited. Qualitative characters that separate the two include the stem (ventricose in B. aethiopum and not in B. flabellifer), petiole spines (large in B. aethiopum, small in B. flabellifer), and fruit colour (black for B. flabellifer and yellow-orange for B. aethiopum). Beccari (1924) separated the African and Asian Borassus species based on the degree of division of the calyx lobes of the staminate flowers. The calyx of Asian species was divided to the base, while the calyx of African species was only divided to the middle. This character appears to be nothing more than an artefact of preparation. The calyx of most staminate flowers (of either Asian or African species) is divided to the middle. However, the transparent, membranous partitions between the calyx lobes tear easily. The resultant tear is perfectly straight, giving the impression that the calyx is divided to the base. Dransfield (1986a) noted that B. aethiopum was generally “more massive” than B. flabellifer and for several characters, this does appear to be the case. The leaves have wider petioles with longer spines and more leaflets, and the staminate and pistillate rachillae are longer with more flowers. However, while B. aethiopum and B. flabellifer are at opposite ends of the size range for some characters, other Borassus species are intermediate and no truly determinate quantitative characters were identified. The Madagascar endemic B. sambiranensis is placed here in synonymy with B. aethiopum as the two are almost indistinguishable, both in the field and the herbarium. Jumelle and Perrier de la Bâthie (1913) describe in detail the differences between the two Madagascar taxa and state that B. sambiranensis is most similar to B. aethiopum. Beccari (1912 – 14, 1914, 1924) recognised B. sambiranensis, though only the pyrenes were available for him to examine. He wrote that they resemble B. aethiopum var. bagamojensis Becc. and differ only in that there is a deep hollow at the apex. The morphology of Borassus pyrenes is extremely variable and this character alone is insufficient to warrant continued recognition of B. sambiranensis. No type specimen was cited by Jumelle and Perrier de la Bâthie, though it could be Perrier 12069 (lower Sambirano valley) (Dransfield & Beentje 1995a). However, this specimen could not be located and a modern neotype, collected in the Sambirano valley, has been designated. Borassus deleb was placed in synonymy with B. aethiopum by Dransfield (1986a), as the diagnostic fruit characters of the former fit within the range of variation exhibited by the latter. Due to their large size and fleshy consistency, few whole Borassus fruits are preserved in European herbaria. New taxa were erected on the basis of differences between these fruits without taking into account the full range of natural variation. In an attempt to counter this problem, every fruit from three Kenyan specimens of B. aethiopum (159 fruits total) was measured in the field. The variation exhibited by those fruits already encompassed almost all the variation in fruit size for the whole genus. The fruit and leaf that are illustrated as part of the type of B. deleb are not significantly different from those of B. aethiopum. Based on my own field observations and examination of the type specimen, I agree with the conclusions of Dransfield (1986a) to place B. deleb in synonymy under B. aethiopum. A neotype has been designated for B. aethiopum as the holotype is missing (Hepper 1976). The holotype was collected in Ghana near Accra (Thonning & Schumacher 1829). The neotype was also collected near Accra and includes both staminate and pistillate elements. (R.P. Bayton. 2007). | + | |
==Culture== | ==Culture== | ||
==Comments and Curiosities== | ==Comments and Curiosities== | ||
| − | + | ''Borassus aethiopium'' is a [[dioecious]] palm species native to Africa where it grows in savannas and woods. The name is Latinized for 'Ethiopian' where the species is known; it is commonly called '''palmyra palm''', as are all the plants in the genus. | |
Etymology: ‘Aethiopia’ was a general term used by the ancient Greeks and Romans for Africa south of Libya and Egypt. (R.P. Bayton. 2007). | Etymology: ‘Aethiopia’ was a general term used by the ancient Greeks and Romans for Africa south of Libya and Egypt. (R.P. Bayton. 2007). | ||
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In English it is variously referred to as African fan palm, African palmyra palm, deleb palm, ron palm, toddy palm, black rhun palm, ronier palm (from the French) and other names. It also has names in African languages. The tree has many uses: the fruit are edible, as are the tender roots produced by the young plant;[1] fibres can be obtained from the leaves; and the wood (which is reputed to be termite-proof) can be used in construction. There are at least two varieties of this species: var. bagamojensis and var. senegalensis. | In English it is variously referred to as African fan palm, African palmyra palm, deleb palm, ron palm, toddy palm, black rhun palm, ronier palm (from the French) and other names. It also has names in African languages. The tree has many uses: the fruit are edible, as are the tender roots produced by the young plant;[1] fibres can be obtained from the leaves; and the wood (which is reputed to be termite-proof) can be used in construction. There are at least two varieties of this species: var. bagamojensis and var. senegalensis. | ||
| − | Conservation: Least concern. Borassus aethiopum is widespread and common in a number of African countries. While several populations are in decline (Sambou et al. 1992; 2002), the palm remains common. Borassus sambiranensis is listed by the IUCN as endangered (EN A1c) due to habitat loss/degradation and suppression of regeneration by fire. It is perhaps unfortunate that by placing this taxon in synonymy with the widespread B. aethiopum, the conservation status of the Madagascar populations will be masked. (R.P. Bayton. 2007). | + | Conservation: Least concern. Borassus aethiopum is widespread and common in a number of African countries. While several populations are in decline (Sambou et al. 1992; 2002), the palm remains common. Borassus sambiranensis is listed by the IUCN as endangered (EN A1c) due to habitat loss/degradation and suppression of regeneration by fire. It is perhaps unfortunate that by placing this taxon in synonymy with the widespread B. aethiopum, the conservation status of the Madagascar populations will be masked. (R.P. Bayton. 2007)/Palmweb. |
| − | Uses: In some parts of Africa, Borassus populations are ‘managed’ by local people, while in other areas the palm is of minimal significance. In many areas, Borassus aethiopum is restricted to game reserves and national parks where it is outside the reach of local people. The leaves are used for thatch and weaving, though species of Hyphaene are generally preferred. The palm is tapped for wine, though the process is different from that used in Asia as the apical bud is tapped rather than the inflorescences. The fruits, undeveloped endosperm and cotyledonary stalks are consumed. Burkill (1997) has reviewed the uses of Borassus aethiopum in West Africa. (R.P. Bayton. 2007) | + | Uses: In some parts of Africa, Borassus populations are ‘managed’ by local people, while in other areas the palm is of minimal significance. In many areas, Borassus aethiopum is restricted to game reserves and national parks where it is outside the reach of local people. The leaves are used for thatch and weaving, though species of Hyphaene are generally preferred. The palm is tapped for wine, though the process is different from that used in Asia as the apical bud is tapped rather than the inflorescences. The fruits, undeveloped endosperm and cotyledonary stalks are consumed. Burkill (1997) has reviewed the uses of Borassus aethiopum in West Africa. (R.P. Bayton. 2007)/Palmweb. |
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| + | <center><gallery caption="IMAGE GALLERY" perrow="" widths="" heights=""> | ||
| + | File:2786008.jpg|Antsiranana, Madagascar. Photo by Dr. G.E. Schatz/Palmweb. | ||
| + | image:0577fb69-6b2b-40b0-8332-83e059d32853z.jpg|Ambanja, Madagascar. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton/Palmweb. | ||
| + | image:65a69633-01b8-4e2b-b7b2-5e0243914980z.jpg|Pama, Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton/Palmweb. | ||
| + | File:2786010.jpg|Forte Vicente, Boanista, Cape Verde. Photo by Dr. William J. Baker, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew/Palmweb. | ||
| + | File:2786006.jpg|Pama, Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton. | ||
| + | File:2786009.jpg|Fairchild Tropical Garden, Florida. Photo by Dr. S. Minter, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew/Palmweb. | ||
| + | image:52b37a1d-eb09-4f8a-9fbf-ee1ff4408f88z.jpg|Pama, Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton/Palmweb. | ||
| + | image:1f4f3d78-adf8-4712-a48e-d073c0280bcbz.jpg|pistillate inflorescence. Pama, Kompienga, Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton/Palmweb. | ||
| + | File:2786004.jpg|Vertical Section of Staminate Rachilla Showing Flower Buds in Pits. Montgomery Botanical Centre, Florida. Photo by Dr. William J. Baker, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew/Palmweb. | ||
| + | image:Fdf73189-ceae-419f-986d-00c062249061z.jpg|Detail of Staminate Rachilla with Several Flowers at Anthesis Emerging from Pits. Montgomery Botanical Centre, Florida. Photo by Dr. William J. Baker, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew/Palmweb. | ||
| + | image:823dda84-9694-40fe-97a2-be6c7070b719z.jpg|Pama, Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton/Palmweb. | ||
| + | File:borassus-aethiopum-maromandia-1.jpg|Maromandia, Madagascar. Photo by Dr. Mijoro Rakotoarinivo/Kew. | ||
| + | image:5549145478_e4ab083148_o.jpg|"You can see the whole palm and the giant fruit in my hand!" Photo by Kyle Wicomb. | ||
| + | image:5549154498_5631c2ed13_o.jpg|Miami, FL. "Me With a gigantic fruit! They are as big as my head!" Photo by Kyle Wicomb. | ||
| + | image:Borassus aethiopum Fairchild.jpg|Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL. | ||
| + | File:RDG2009-11-09_17-06-26.jpg||SPFS sale 2009. Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL. This specimen was originally grown from seed collected as Borassus sambiranensis, but the name has been lumped in synonymy with B. aethiopum. Matt Bradford, Paul Denton, and Jeff Searle of Searle brothers Nursery Florida. Photo by Ryan D. Gallivan. | ||
| + | File:RDG2009-11-09_17-06-41.jpg|SPFS sale 2009. Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL. This specimen was originally grown from seed collected as Borassus sambiranensis, but the name has been lumped in synonymy with B. aethiopum. Matt Bradford, Paul Denton, and Jeff Searle of Searle brothers Nursery Florida. Photo br Ryan D. Gallivan. | ||
| + | File:RDG2009-11-09_17-07-44.jpg|SPFS sale 2009. Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL. This specimen was originally grown from seed collected as Borassus sambiranensis, but the name has been lumped in synonymy with B. aethiopum. Matt Bradford, Paul Denton, and Ryan Gallivan, of Searle brothers Nursery Florida. Photo by Ryan D. Gallivan. | ||
| + | File:RDG2009-11-09_17-08-14.jpg|SPFS sale 2009. Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL. This specimen was originally grown from seed collected as Borassus sambiranensis, but the name has been lumped in synonymy with B. aethiopum. Mike, Jeff Searle of Searle brothers Nursery Florida. and Matt Bradford. Photo by Ryan D. Gallivan. | ||
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Image:Borassus aethiopum infructescence100 0237.jpg|Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL. | Image:Borassus aethiopum infructescence100 0237.jpg|Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL. | ||
Image:Borassuspetiole.jpg|Amazing Petiole Armor. | Image:Borassuspetiole.jpg|Amazing Petiole Armor. | ||
image:Borae0001z.jpg|In habitat. Photo-Rare Palm Seeds.com | image:Borae0001z.jpg|In habitat. Photo-Rare Palm Seeds.com | ||
image:Borae0002z.jpg|In habitat. Photo-Rare Palm Seeds.com | image:Borae0002z.jpg|In habitat. Photo-Rare Palm Seeds.com | ||
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| − | image:Borassus_aethiopum,_Rwebisengo_-_Flickr_-_Dave_Proffer_(10).jpg|Rwebisengo, Bundibugyo, Uganda. Photo by Dave Proffer | + | image:Borassus_aethiopum,_Rwebisengo_-_Flickr_-_Dave_Proffer_(10).jpg|Rwebisengo, Bundibugyo, Uganda. Photo by Dave Proffer |
image:Borassus_aethiopum_1.JPG | image:Borassus_aethiopum_1.JPG | ||
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| − | image:Borassus_aethiopum_MS_4049.jpg | + | image:Borassus_aethiopum_MS_4049.jpg|Cameroon. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt |
image:Borassus_aethiopum_seeds.jpg | image:Borassus_aethiopum_seeds.jpg | ||
image:Borassus-aethiopium.jpg | image:Borassus-aethiopium.jpg | ||
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| − | image:Borassus_aethiopum_craft.jpg|Flamingo Gardens, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, photo by Paul Craft | + | image:Borassus_aethiopum_craft.jpg|Flamingo Gardens, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, photo by Paul Craft |
| − | image:RDG2010-03-27_11-11-43z.jpg|Miami FL. Photo by Ryan D. Gallivan | + | image:RDG2010-03-27_11-11-43z.jpg|Miami FL. Photo by Ryan D. Gallivan. |
image:BorassusAethiopium88.png | image:BorassusAethiopium88.png | ||
| − | image:Aethiopum.jpg|Photo by Kyle Wicomb | + | image:Aethiopum.jpg|Photo by Kyle Wicomb. |
| − | image:Aethiopum03.jpg|In habitat, Mvuu, Malawi. Photo by Kyle Wicomb | + | image:Aethiopum03.jpg|In habitat, Mvuu, Malawi. Photo by Kyle Wicomb |
| − | image:Aethiopum02.jpg|In habitat, Mvuu, Malawi. Photo by Kyle Wicomb | + | image:Aethiopum02.jpg|In habitat, Mvuu, Malawi. Photo by Kyle Wicomb |
| − | image:Aethiopum04.jpg|In habitat, Mvuu, Malawi. Photo by Kyle Wicomb | + | image:Aethiopum04.jpg|In habitat, Mvuu, Malawi. Photo by Kyle Wicomb |
| − | image:Aethiopum05.jpg|With Phoenix reclinata. Photo by Kyle Wicomb | + | image:Aethiopum05.jpg|With Phoenix reclinata. Photo by Kyle Wicomb |
image:Borassus anthiopum (1).jpg|Fairchild Gardens, Florida. | image:Borassus anthiopum (1).jpg|Fairchild Gardens, Florida. | ||
image:Fdfa72a5-768f-499c-8bc2-dc89c30eec30.jpg|Photo-Kew. | image:Fdfa72a5-768f-499c-8bc2-dc89c30eec30.jpg|Photo-Kew. | ||
| − | image:Borassus76z.jpg|"From seed in 1994. This thing is huge! Notice the tiny 6 foot fence behind it." Satellite Beach, FL. Photo by Charlene and Greg, | + | image:Borassus76z.jpg|"From seed in 1994. This thing is huge! Notice the tiny 6 foot fence behind it." Satellite Beach, FL. Photo by Charlene and Greg |
| + | image:25279_orig.jpg|Along road from entrance gate to Chitengo, Gorongosa National Park Habitat: Margin of seasonally flooded riverine forest. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten | ||
| + | image:76764_orig.jpg|Along road from entrance gate to Chitengo, Gorongosa National Park Habitat: Margin of seasonally flooded riverine forest. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten | ||
| + | image:91884_orig.jpg|Rusitu Valley Habitat: At edge of cultivated field. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten | ||
| + | image:92171_orig.jpg|Rusitu Valley Habitat: At edge of cultivated field. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten | ||
| + | image:69000_orig.jpg|In Chitengo Camp, Gorongosa National Park. Habitat: Remnant of original vegetation in camp. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten | ||
| + | image:20644_orig.jpg|Along road from entrance gate to Chitengo, Gorongosa National Park Habitat: Margin of seasonally flooded riverine forest. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten | ||
| + | image:43397_orig.jpg|Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt | ||
| + | image:58339_orig.jpg|Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt | ||
| + | image:10351_orig.jpg|Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt | ||
| + | image:36735_orig.jpg|Burkina Faso, Pama / Reserve partielle de Pama. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt | ||
| + | image:28521_orig.jpg|Burkina Faso, between Tenkodogo and Po. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt | ||
| + | image:99870_orig.jpg|Burkina Faso, Soum, Djibo. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt | ||
| + | image:93304_orig.jpg|Gulu, Uganda. Photo by Dr. Bernard DUPONT | ||
| + | image:26995_orig.jpg|Gulu, Uganda. Photo by Dr. Bernard DUPONT | ||
| + | image:74826_orig.jpg|Gulu, Uganda. Photo by Dr. Bernard DUPONT | ||
| + | image:15694_orig.jpg | ||
| + | image:18885_orig.jpg|Gulu, Uganda. Photo by Dr. Bernard DUPONT | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
</gallery></center> | </gallery></center> | ||
| + | ==External Links== | ||
| + | *[http://eunops.org/content/glossary-palm-terms Glossary of Palm Terms] | ||
| + | *[http://www.calflora.net/botanicalnames/pronunciation.html MODERN BOTANICAL LATIN] | ||
| + | *[http://www.jlhudsonseeds.net/Pronunciation.htm "Just To Be Clear"] | ||
| + | *http://www.palmbeachpalmcycadsociety.com/palms/documents/BorassusAethiopium.pdf | ||
| + | *http://www.westafricanplants.senckenberg.de/root/index.php?page_id=14&id=214 | ||
| + | ==References== | ||
| + | Phonetic spelling of Latin names by edric. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Special thanks to Geoff Stein, (Palmbob) for his hundreds of photos. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Special thanks to [http://palmweb.org/?q=node/2 Palmweb.org], Dr. John Dransfield, Dr. Bill Baker & team, for their volumes of information and photos. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Glossary of Palm Terms; Based on the glossary in Dransfield, J., N.W. Uhl, C.B. Asmussen-Lange, W.J. Baker, M.M. Harley & C.E. Lewis. 2008. Genera Palmarum - Evolution and Classification of the Palms. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. All images copyright of the artists and photographers (see images for credits). | ||
| + | |||
| + | Bayton, R.P.2007. A revision of Borassus L. (Arecaceae). Kew Bulletin 62: 561-586. | ||
| + | |||
{{SpeciesListBackLink}} | {{SpeciesListBackLink}} | ||
[[Category:BORASSUS|aethiopum]] | [[Category:BORASSUS|aethiopum]] | ||
Latest revision as of 01:09, 11 November 2016
| Borassus (BOR-rahs-suhs) aethiopum (eh-tee-OH-puhm) | |||||||
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 Maromandia, Madagascar. Photo by Dr. Mijoro Rakotoarinivo/Kew. | |||||||
| Scientific Classification | |||||||
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Contents
Habitat and Distribution
Borassus aethiopum is found in Benin, Burkina, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Ethiopia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Northern Provinces, Senegal, Sudan,
Riverine forest and savanna in low-lying areas, particularly on sandy or alluvial soils. Borassus aethiopum can form dense almost monospecific forest stands or is a component of more diverse riverine forest. However, it is as the main component of palm savannas for which it is best known. Borassus aethiopum is well adapted to fire and herbivory and prospers in areas with frequent burning and browsing. After the pyrenes are dispersed, the embryo is buried underground by the extending cotyledonary petiole (Barot & Gignoux 1999). The meristem is thus protected in the early years of life during a period known as the establishment phase. After several years surviving as a small cluster of leaves, the palm finally generates a stem and this grows rapidly. At this stage, the meristem is vulnerable to fire and herbivory, but is protected to some extent by the skirt of dead leaves that clothes the stem. The dead leaf blades are highly-flammable, but the woody petioles are more persistent and this may allow brush fires to pass quickly; the leaf blade is quickly consumed, but the petiole burns slowly, keeping the fire away from the meristem. As a result, the stem is covered with petioles, which may also serve as a deterrent to large herbivores as the petioles are armed with spines. The accumulated leaf sheathes and petioles are shed cleanly at maturity (Barot & Gignoux 1999). At this point, the meristem is protected from fire and herbivory by virtue of its height above the ground. (R.P. Bayton. 2007)/Palmweb.
Description
They grow swelling, solitary trunks to 25 metres (82 ft.) high, and 1 metre (3 ft. 3 in.) in diameter at the base. The green leaves — 3 to 4 metres (10-12 ft.) wide — are carried on petioles — 2 metres (6 ft. 7 in.) long — which are armed with spines. The crownshaft is spherical to 7 metres (23 ft.) wide, the leaves are round with stiff leaflets, segmented a third or half-way to the petiole. In male plants the flower is small and inconspicuous; females grow larger, 2 centimetres (0.79 in.) flowers which produce yellow to brown fruit resembling the coconut containing up to 3 seeds. Editing by edric.
| Detailed Scientific Description |
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Stem to 25m tall, almost always ventricose, to 80 cm in diameter. Leaves 18 – 27 in the crown; petiole and sheath 130 – 220 cm long; petiole 3.2 – 9 cm wide, robust, with large (0.4 – 2.8 cm long), recurved black teeth on the margins, yellow-orange in the distal portion, darkening to brown-black towards the trunk, though in immature plants, the petiole may be completely black; petiole spines extending along the margin of the first leaflet; costa 80 – 170 cm long; adaxial hastula conspicuous, to 2.9 cm high, abaxial hastula rudimentary; lamina radius to 190 cm maximum, dense indumentum on the ribs of some immature leaves; leaflets 86 – 120, 4.7 – 11 cm wide, apices acute and entire or splitting longitudinally with age, shortest leaflet 45 – 92 cm long, leaf divided to 58 – 95 cm; commissural veins 8 – 15 per cm, leaf anatomy isolateral. Staminate inflorescences branched to two orders, upper subtending branches terminating in 1 – 3 rachillae; rachillae green-brown and catkin-like, 37 – 50 cm long, 2.3 – 3.8 cm diameter, sometimes with a mamilliform apex; rachilla bracts form pits that contain a cincinnus of 8 – 14 staminate flowers. Pistillate inflorescences spicate; flower-bearing portion 36 – 160 cm long with 10 – 28 flowers arranged spirally. Staminate flowers 0.2 – 0.7 cm long, exserted individually from the pits; bracteoles 0.8 × 0.5 cm; calyx 0.4 × 0.2 cm and shallowly divided into three sepals, petal lobes 0.15 × 0.1 cm; stamens 6 with very short filaments, 0.02 × 0.04 cm, anthers 0.02 × 0.05 cm; pistillode minute. Pollen monosulcate, elliptical, 49 – 71 μm long, aperture 37 – 71 μm long, polar axis 32 – 61 μm long; tectum perforate, sparsely covered with supratectal gemmae. Pistillate flowers 3 × 3 cm, bracteoles 2 cm diam., sepals 1.5 × 2 cm and petals 1 × 1.5 cm. Fruits massive, 7 – 17 × 7 – 11 cm, ovoid, flattened at the apex, or with a depressed apex; fragrant, yellow to orange or red at maturity; produced inside persistent perianth segments; pyrenes 1 – 3, 6.4 – 10.9 cm × 5.4 – 8.0 cm × 4.2 – 5.7 cm, somewhat bilobed; some pyrenes have one or two external longitudinal furrows; internal flanges absent. (R.P. Bayton. 2007)/Palmweb. Historically, the key question in Borassus taxonomy has been whether to recognise both the African B. aethiopum and the Asian B. flabellifer. Most recent accounts do recognise B. aethiopum (Beccari 1924; Dransfield 1986a; 1988; Tuley 1995). The molecular study of Kovoor & Hussein (1983) also noted differences between the two species, though the population sampling was extremely limited. Qualitative characters that separate the two include the stem (ventricose in B. aethiopum and not in B. flabellifer), petiole spines (large in B. aethiopum, small in B. flabellifer), and fruit colour (black for B. flabellifer and yellow-orange for B. aethiopum). Beccari (1924) separated the African and Asian Borassus species based on the degree of division of the calyx lobes of the staminate flowers. The calyx of Asian species was divided to the base, while the calyx of African species was only divided to the middle. This character appears to be nothing more than an artefact of preparation. The calyx of most staminate flowers (of either Asian or African species) is divided to the middle. However, the transparent, membranous partitions between the calyx lobes tear easily. The resultant tear is perfectly straight, giving the impression that the calyx is divided to the base. Dransfield (1986a) noted that B. aethiopum was generally “more massive” than B. flabellifer and for several characters, this does appear to be the case. The leaves have wider petioles with longer spines and more leaflets, and the staminate and pistillate rachillae are longer with more flowers. However, while B. aethiopum and B. flabellifer are at opposite ends of the size range for some characters, other Borassus species are intermediate and no truly determinate quantitative characters were identified. The Madagascar endemic B. sambiranensis is placed here in synonymy with B. aethiopum as the two are almost indistinguishable, both in the field and the herbarium. Jumelle and Perrier de la Bâthie (1913) describe in detail the differences between the two Madagascar taxa and state that B. sambiranensis is most similar to B. aethiopum. Beccari (1912 – 14, 1914, 1924) recognised B. sambiranensis, though only the pyrenes were available for him to examine. He wrote that they resemble B. aethiopum var. bagamojensis Becc. and differ only in that there is a deep hollow at the apex. The morphology of Borassus pyrenes is extremely variable and this character alone is insufficient to warrant continued recognition of B. sambiranensis. No type specimen was cited by Jumelle and Perrier de la Bâthie, though it could be Perrier 12069 (lower Sambirano valley) (Dransfield & Beentje 1995a). However, this specimen could not be located and a modern neotype, collected in the Sambirano valley, has been designated. Borassus deleb was placed in synonymy with B. aethiopum by Dransfield (1986a), as the diagnostic fruit characters of the former fit within the range of variation exhibited by the latter. Due to their large size and fleshy consistency, few whole Borassus fruits are preserved in European herbaria. New taxa were erected on the basis of differences between these fruits without taking into account the full range of natural variation. In an attempt to counter this problem, every fruit from three Kenyan specimens of B. aethiopum (159 fruits total) was measured in the field. The variation exhibited by those fruits already encompassed almost all the variation in fruit size for the whole genus. The fruit and leaf that are illustrated as part of the type of B. deleb are not significantly different from those of B. aethiopum. Based on my own field observations and examination of the type specimen, I agree with the conclusions of Dransfield (1986a) to place B. deleb in synonymy under B. aethiopum. A neotype has been designated for B. aethiopum as the holotype is missing (Hepper 1976). The holotype was collected in Ghana near Accra (Thonning & Schumacher 1829). The neotype was also collected near Accra and includes both staminate and pistillate elements. (R.P. Bayton. 2007)/Palmweb. |
Culture
Comments and Curiosities
Borassus aethiopium is a dioecious palm species native to Africa where it grows in savannas and woods. The name is Latinized for 'Ethiopian' where the species is known; it is commonly called palmyra palm, as are all the plants in the genus.
Etymology: ‘Aethiopia’ was a general term used by the ancient Greeks and Romans for Africa south of Libya and Egypt. (R.P. Bayton. 2007).
In English it is variously referred to as African fan palm, African palmyra palm, deleb palm, ron palm, toddy palm, black rhun palm, ronier palm (from the French) and other names. It also has names in African languages. The tree has many uses: the fruit are edible, as are the tender roots produced by the young plant;[1] fibres can be obtained from the leaves; and the wood (which is reputed to be termite-proof) can be used in construction. There are at least two varieties of this species: var. bagamojensis and var. senegalensis.
Conservation: Least concern. Borassus aethiopum is widespread and common in a number of African countries. While several populations are in decline (Sambou et al. 1992; 2002), the palm remains common. Borassus sambiranensis is listed by the IUCN as endangered (EN A1c) due to habitat loss/degradation and suppression of regeneration by fire. It is perhaps unfortunate that by placing this taxon in synonymy with the widespread B. aethiopum, the conservation status of the Madagascar populations will be masked. (R.P. Bayton. 2007)/Palmweb.
Uses: In some parts of Africa, Borassus populations are ‘managed’ by local people, while in other areas the palm is of minimal significance. In many areas, Borassus aethiopum is restricted to game reserves and national parks where it is outside the reach of local people. The leaves are used for thatch and weaving, though species of Hyphaene are generally preferred. The palm is tapped for wine, though the process is different from that used in Asia as the apical bud is tapped rather than the inflorescences. The fruits, undeveloped endosperm and cotyledonary stalks are consumed. Burkill (1997) has reviewed the uses of Borassus aethiopum in West Africa. (R.P. Bayton. 2007)/Palmweb.
- IMAGE GALLERY
Antsiranana, Madagascar. Photo by Dr. G.E. Schatz/Palmweb.
Ambanja, Madagascar. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton/Palmweb.
Pama, Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton/Palmweb.
Forte Vicente, Boanista, Cape Verde. Photo by Dr. William J. Baker, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew/Palmweb.
Pama, Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton.
Fairchild Tropical Garden, Florida. Photo by Dr. S. Minter, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew/Palmweb.
Pama, Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton/Palmweb.
pistillate inflorescence. Pama, Kompienga, Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton/Palmweb.
Vertical Section of Staminate Rachilla Showing Flower Buds in Pits. Montgomery Botanical Centre, Florida. Photo by Dr. William J. Baker, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew/Palmweb.
Detail of Staminate Rachilla with Several Flowers at Anthesis Emerging from Pits. Montgomery Botanical Centre, Florida. Photo by Dr. William J. Baker, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew/Palmweb.
Pama, Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Ross P. Bayton/Palmweb.
Maromandia, Madagascar. Photo by Dr. Mijoro Rakotoarinivo/Kew.
"You can see the whole palm and the giant fruit in my hand!" Photo by Kyle Wicomb.
Miami, FL. "Me With a gigantic fruit! They are as big as my head!" Photo by Kyle Wicomb.
Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL.
|SPFS sale 2009. Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL. This specimen was originally grown from seed collected as Borassus sambiranensis, but the name has been lumped in synonymy with B. aethiopum. Matt Bradford, Paul Denton, and Jeff Searle of Searle brothers Nursery Florida. Photo by Ryan D. Gallivan.
SPFS sale 2009. Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL. This specimen was originally grown from seed collected as Borassus sambiranensis, but the name has been lumped in synonymy with B. aethiopum. Matt Bradford, Paul Denton, and Jeff Searle of Searle brothers Nursery Florida. Photo br Ryan D. Gallivan.
SPFS sale 2009. Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL. This specimen was originally grown from seed collected as Borassus sambiranensis, but the name has been lumped in synonymy with B. aethiopum. Matt Bradford, Paul Denton, and Ryan Gallivan, of Searle brothers Nursery Florida. Photo by Ryan D. Gallivan.
SPFS sale 2009. Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL. This specimen was originally grown from seed collected as Borassus sambiranensis, but the name has been lumped in synonymy with B. aethiopum. Mike, Jeff Searle of Searle brothers Nursery Florida. and Matt Bradford. Photo by Ryan D. Gallivan.
Fairchild Botanical Gardens, FL.
Amazing Petiole Armor.
In habitat. Photo-Rare Palm Seeds.com
In habitat. Photo-Rare Palm Seeds.com
Rwebisengo, Bundibugyo, Uganda. Photo by Dave Proffer
Cameroon. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt
Flamingo Gardens, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, photo by Paul Craft
Miami FL. Photo by Ryan D. Gallivan.
Photo by Kyle Wicomb.
In habitat, Mvuu, Malawi. Photo by Kyle Wicomb
In habitat, Mvuu, Malawi. Photo by Kyle Wicomb
In habitat, Mvuu, Malawi. Photo by Kyle Wicomb
With Phoenix reclinata. Photo by Kyle Wicomb
Fairchild Gardens, Florida.
Photo-Kew.
"From seed in 1994. This thing is huge! Notice the tiny 6 foot fence behind it." Satellite Beach, FL. Photo by Charlene and Greg
Along road from entrance gate to Chitengo, Gorongosa National Park Habitat: Margin of seasonally flooded riverine forest. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten
Along road from entrance gate to Chitengo, Gorongosa National Park Habitat: Margin of seasonally flooded riverine forest. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten
Rusitu Valley Habitat: At edge of cultivated field. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten
Rusitu Valley Habitat: At edge of cultivated field. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten
In Chitengo Camp, Gorongosa National Park. Habitat: Remnant of original vegetation in camp. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten
Along road from entrance gate to Chitengo, Gorongosa National Park Habitat: Margin of seasonally flooded riverine forest. Photo by Dr. Bart Wursten
Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt
Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt
Burkina Faso. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt
Burkina Faso, Pama / Reserve partielle de Pama. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt
Burkina Faso, between Tenkodogo and Po. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt
Burkina Faso, Soum, Djibo. Photo by Dr. Marco Schmidt
Gulu, Uganda. Photo by Dr. Bernard DUPONT
Gulu, Uganda. Photo by Dr. Bernard DUPONT
Gulu, Uganda. Photo by Dr. Bernard DUPONT
Gulu, Uganda. Photo by Dr. Bernard DUPONT
.jpg)
.jpg)
External Links
- Glossary of Palm Terms
- MODERN BOTANICAL LATIN
- "Just To Be Clear"
- http://www.palmbeachpalmcycadsociety.com/palms/documents/BorassusAethiopium.pdf
- http://www.westafricanplants.senckenberg.de/root/index.php?page_id=14&id=214
References
Phonetic spelling of Latin names by edric.
Special thanks to Geoff Stein, (Palmbob) for his hundreds of photos.
Special thanks to Palmweb.org, Dr. John Dransfield, Dr. Bill Baker & team, for their volumes of information and photos.
Glossary of Palm Terms; Based on the glossary in Dransfield, J., N.W. Uhl, C.B. Asmussen-Lange, W.J. Baker, M.M. Harley & C.E. Lewis. 2008. Genera Palmarum - Evolution and Classification of the Palms. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. All images copyright of the artists and photographers (see images for credits).
Bayton, R.P.2007. A revision of Borassus L. (Arecaceae). Kew Bulletin 62: 561-586.
Many Special Thanks to Ed Vaile for his long hours of tireless editing and numerous contributions.
